The Ancient-Greek word, τὰ στοιχει̃α or, when transliterated ‘tà stoicheĩa,’ is a plural form of the 2nd-declension neuter verb, τὸ στοιχει̃ον genitive: του̃ στοιχείου or, when transliterated: ‘tò stoicheĩon,’ genitive: ‘toũ stoicheíou.’
The Ancient-Greek word, ‘tò stoicheĩon,’ can mean ‘an element in a set.’
Figure 1: The elements of this set are alpha, beta, gamma and delta.
The Ancient-Greek word, ‘tò stoicheĩon,’ is formed from the Ancient-Greek masculine noun, ὁ στοι̃χος genitive: του̃ στοίχου or, when transliterated, ‘ho stoĩchos,’ genitive: ‘toũ stoíchou,’ which means ‘steps,’ or ‘a flight of stairs;’ and the Ancient-Greek 2nd-declension neuter nominal suffix, ‘-eĩon,’ genitive: ‘-eíou’ which denotes ‘a means (of),’ ‘an instrument of;’ etc.
Figure 2: a ‘stoĩchos’ or ‘series of steps.’
The term, ‘stoĩchos,’ according to Wiktionary, may be traced back to the indo-european word:
*steigʰ
, which means:
‘climb.’
Hence, etymologically, the Ancient-Greek term, ‘stoicheĩa,’ can be said to mean: ‘the means of climbing up;’ ‘the means of stepping up;’ ‘the means of ascent;’ etc.
This is highly instructive, as, in truth, Elements is a book that is a Jacob’s ladder, of sorts, by which one can ascend, element by element, into the heavens of mathematical knowledge.
Figure 3: With The Elements of Euclid, we advance in our mathematical knowledge element by element. Each element is, conceptually, like a rung, heaving us upwards to Mathematical prowess; to an implicit knowledge of Euclidean Geometry.
Conventional Arithmetic possesses rules for the order of operations. Which operations ought we to evaluate first? In what order ought we to evaluate operations? This is the topic that this chapter wishes to address. ‘Precedence,’ is also sometimes referred to as ‘the order of operations.’
Body:
The Etymological Definition of ‘Precedence:’
Our English noun, ‘precedence,’ is derived from the Latin substantive participle, ‘praecēdentia.’[3] ‘Praecēdentia,’ in Latin, means ‘the abstract concept of which things go before [other things].’
Figure 2: The English arithmetical term, ‘precendence,’ is derived from a compund of the Latin verb ‘cēdēre,’ which means ‘to go.’ Go, or Golang, as a language, is—syntactically—very like the C Programming Language.
Within the context of Arithmetic, ‘precedence,’ etymologically, means ‘the science of determining which operations go before [other operations];’ ‘the science of determining which operations should be evaluated before [other operations].
The Acronym, ‘P.E.M.D.A.S:’
The acronym, ‘P.E.M.D.A.S.,’ stands for:
Parenthesis;
Exponentiation;
Multiplication and Division;
Addition and Subtraction.
The Acronym, ‘P.E.M.D.A.S.,’ can be easily remembered with the Mnemonic phrase:
As we can observe from the above ordered list, some operations share the same level of precedence. For example, the operation, multiplication, and the operation, division, have the same level of precedence. Multiplication and Division share the third level of precedence, in the above list. When we are confronted with an expression or an equation that contains operations at the same level of precedence, seeing that in Anglophone countries, we read from left to right, then we evaluate operations that possess the same level of precedence from left to right. Hence, when two or more operations—within an equation or an expression—share the same level of precedence, then we evaluate them from left to right. Concerning operations at the same level of precedence, we evaluate from beginning at the leftmost operation, and work our way rightwards.
An Example of Precedence:
In the expression:
2 ÷ 1 + 3 × 42 – 5 + ( 3 – 2 )
, we first evaluate the operation in parenthesis, i.e.:
( 3 – 2 )
. When we evaluate:
( 3 – 2 )
, then we obtain the difference:
1
.
This renders the original expression as:
2 ÷ 1 + 3 × 42 – 5 + ( 1 )
or as:
2 ÷ 1 + 3 × 42 – 5 + 1
.
Second, we evaluate the exponentiation operation i.e.:
42
. When we evaluate:
42
, then this obtains for us the power:
16
. This renders our original expression as:
2 ÷ 1 + 3 × 16 – 5 + 1
.
The operations, Multiplication and Division, share the same level of precedence. However, given that the division operation is further to the left, on the page, than the multiplication operation, then we evaluate the division operation before we evaluate the multiplication operation.
Given that the division operation:
2 ÷ 1
is further to the left, on our page than the multiplication operation:
3 × 16
, then we evaluate:
2 ÷ 1
before we evaluate:
3 × 16
.
When we evaluate:
<!–
2\div1
–>
2 ÷ 1
, then we obtain the quotient:
2
. This renders our original expression as:
2 + 3 × 16 – 5 + 1
. Then we proceed to evaluate:
3 × 16
, and this obtains for us the product:
48
. This renders our original expression as:
2 + 48 – 5 + 1
.
The operations; addition, and subtraction; share the same level of precedence. In the above ordered list, they are at the 4th level of precedence. We evaluate these operations as we should find them, beginning at the leftmost, and working our way rightward. Hence, we evaluate:
2 + 48
first. This obtains for us the sum:
50
. This renders our original expression as:
50 – 5 + 1
. We then proceed to evaluate the operation:
50 – 5
, which obtains for us the difference:
45
. This renders our original expression as:
45 + 1
. We then proceed to evaluate the expression:
45 + 1
. This obtains for us the sum:
46
.
This renders our original expression as:
46
. We have thus simplified the expression:
2 ÷ 1 + 3 × 42 – 5 + ( 3 – 2 )
to:
46
. We have observed mathematical precedence οr the order of operations in our simplification of the expression:
<!–
2 \div 1 + 3 \times 42 – 5 + \left ( 3 – 2 )
–>
2 ÷ 1 + 3 × 42 – 5 + ( 3 – 2 )
to:
46
.
Conclusion:
In this chapter, we have endeavoured to gain for ourselves an implicit understanding of precedence as it pertains to basic or conventional arithmetic. Boolean arithmetic, an arithmetic of logic employed in Computer Science, also possesses precedence or an order of operations, which we shall examine in a subsequent chapter. In the next chapter, we shall examine precedence or the order of operations as it specifically applies to the C programming language.
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The Famous Syllogism[1] in Greek, Latin and English:
Figure 1: I drew this pencil portrait of George Boole (1815-1864) with Pencils and Photoshop. The Mathematical Analysis of Logic was published in 1847, and An Investigation into the Laws of Thought was published in 1854.
Introduction:
Quite early on, in his Mathematical Analysis of Logic, George Boole–whence in programming and computer science we derive the datatype name, ‘Boolean’– introduces this famous syllogism to us, his readers.
Body:
In Ancient Greek:
ὁ Σωκράτης ἐστιν ἄνθρωπος.
πάντης ἄνθρωποι ἐστι θνητοί.
οὖν ὁ Σωκράτης ἐστι θνητός.
When Transliterated:
ho Sōcrátēs estin ánthrōpos.
pántēs ánthrōpoi esti thnētoí.
oũn ho Sōkrátēs esti thnētos.
In Latin:
Sōcratēs est homō.
Omnēs hominēs sunt mortālēs.
Ergō, Sōcratēs est mortālis.
In English:
Socrates is a man.
All men are mortal.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Conclusion:
The Ancient-Greek term, ὁ λόγος or, when transliterated, ‘ho lógos,’[1] means–within the context of logic– ‘statement,’ or ‘argument.’
The Latin 1st-and-2nd-declension adjectival suffix, ‘-ica, -icus, -icum’ means ‘of,’ ‘about,’ ‘concerning,’ ‘pertaining to,’ etc.
Hence, etymologically, ‘logic’ is ‘the study of the truth or falsehood of statements and arguments.’
Conventional arithmetic or Conventional Algebra has quantity for its subject. George Boole developed an algebra, or an arithmetic that had logic as its subject.
Indeed, in his book, The Laws of Thought he terms this ‘arithmetic’ or ‘algebra’ of his ‘a calculus of logic’ by which he meant ‘a system whereby the truth or falsehood of statements/arguments could be analysed.’
Figure 1: I drew this pencil portrait of Socrates (469/470-399 BC) with Pencils. Vēre Sōcratēs est enim mortālis. Truly Socrates is mortal indeed.
Glossary:
calculus (ˈkælkjʊləs) nounplural-luses
a branch of mathematics, developed independently by Newton and Leibniz. Both differential calculus and integral calculus are concerned with the effect on a function of an infinitesimal change in the independent variable as it tends to zero.
any mathematical system of calculation involving the use of symbols
logic an uninterputed formal system. Compare formal language (sense 2)
(plural-li (ˈkælkjʊˌlaɪ) ) pathology a stonelike concretion of minerals and salts found in ducts or hollow organs of the body[C17 from Latin: pebble, stone used in reckoning, from calx small stone, counter]
calcular(ˈkælkjʊlə) adjective relating to calculus
calculous (ˈkælkjʊləs) or calculary(ˈkælkjʊlərɪ) of or suffering from a calculus. Obsolete form: calculose
calculus of variations a branch of calculus concerned with maxima and minima of definite integrals.[1]
It is my contention that the knowledge of Latin and Greek make STEM[1] easier to learn. A huge number of STEM terms are derived from Greek and Latin.
Fig 1: I drew this portrait of George Boole with pencils. George Boole was self-taught and fluent in Latin, Greek and Hebrew by the time that he was 12.
Vel Symbol:
Fig 1: This is the Vel symbol. You may view the Vector at my CodePen Account.
In Formal Logic this symbol represents ‘disjunction.’ The equivalent in Boolean Algebra is ‘Inclusive Or.’ ‘vel’ is Latin for ‘or.’ One sees this quite a bit in liturgical rubrics[2].
The Wedge Symbol
Fig 1: This is the Wedge symbol. You may view the Vector at my CodePen Account.
In Formal Logic this symbol represents “conjunction.” The equivalent in Boolean Algebra is “And.” In Latin, ‘ac’ or ‘atque’ is ‘and.’ Sometimes this symbol is called this. One sees this quite a bit in ecclesiastical Latin.
‘I announce to ye a great joy: we have a Pope!, the most eminent and most revered [forename] lord of the most holy Roman Church, Cardinal [surname], who hath placed upon himself the name [regnal name].’
In the offertory the priest prays:
‘…prō fidēlibus christiānīs vīvīs atque dēfūnctīs…’
‘…for all faithful Christians living and dead…’
In The Young Pope (2016), a Cardinal, disfavoured by Pius XIII/Jude Law, prays this in the frozen wilderness of Alaska, to whence he was banished.
I remember as a young child feeling very sad when the last day of Christmas would come on January 6th. The 6th of January is ‘the Epiphany.’ The term, ‘epiphany,’ etymologically means ‘a shining out;’ ‘an enlightenment.’[1] Hence, the three wise men, Saints Caspar, Melchior and Balthasar were enlightened; it was discovered unto them – by a star in the east – that Jesus Christ:
The Pagans called their Christmas ‘Sāturnālia.’ Saturn was the god of Time, the god of Agriculture, the grim reaper who mows everybody down with his scythe, the god of crucifixion, who crucifies all men with age, sickness and geriatric infirmity, the god of decay… and winter is a time of death and decay. However, Saturn only causes death and decay such that new life can come in the spring time. It is said that when Saturn reigned as King of Rome with another god, Janus, that men lived to be about 1,000, there was an abundant harvest every year, and that death was painless.
The Christians called their winter festival “Nātīvitās Dominī” or “the Birth of [Our] Lord.” They were/are both winter festivals though.
[1] The English word ‘epiphany’ comes from the Latin feminine 1st-declension noun, ‘epiphanīa’ genitive: ‘epiphanīae.’ We can further derive the Latin noun, ‘epiphanīa,’ From the Ancient-Greek preposition ἐπί or ‘epí,’ which means a number of things depending upon the context, and the Ancient Greek verb, ‘φαίνειν’ or ‘phaínein,’ which means ‘to shine;’ and from the Ancient-Greek nominal suffix, -ια or’-ia.’ An ‘epiphany,’ therefore, is an ‘enlightenment,’ ‘a revalation shone into some one.’
[2] KJV Matthew 2:2. Although not an atheist, I tend to concur with the late Christopher Hitchens that the infancy narratives are “true in none of their details” not least because Matthew and Luke contradict each other so wildly, and also because of the historical absurdities that they allege, such as Saint Joseph’s being ordered by the Romans to complete a census in Bethlehem, because that is where his ancestor, David, was from. The Romans did not care for such things. The Romans would not have cared in the slightest that Saint Joseph was descended from King David. Can you imagine the Empire-wide turmoil that would have resulted if every man had to go back to the city of his ancestors who lived a millenium prior! Charming tale, though.
[3] Saturn’s astrological symbol is the cross united with the scythe. Saturn is also the god of satire, because satire can cause the death of bad ideas. Today, some call his Norse equivalent, Loki, “the god of trolling.”
I never had any interest in Mathematics, or Architecture, or Technical drawing at school… however, I believe that Latin and Greek confers an architectural frame of mind upon one. This mindset is sometimes termed ‘Rōmānitās,’ or ‘Roman-mess.’
As Plato is said, by legend, to have inscribed upon the Portico of the Academy:[1]
ἀγεωμέτρητος μηδεὶς εἰσίτω
‘ageōmétrētos mēseàs eisístō’
which means ‘let nobody ignorant of geometry enter.’
To the Greeks, therefore, Mathematics and Geometry was seen as a prerequisite to philosophy.
I began to read an English translation of ‘the Euclid,’ I think in 2014, and was amazed that I could understand it. I was in a private chapel, ironically, when this occurred. My interest in Ecclesiastical Latin led me to become interested in Geometry.
Figure 2:In the first Book of Corinthians chapter 3, verse 10 saint Paul calls himself a “wise masterbuilder” or “sophòs architéktōn”
In the King James Bible, Saint Paul calls himself a “wise masterbuilder”:
‘According to the grace of God which is given unto me, as a wise masterbuilder, I have laid the foundation, and another buildeth thereon. …’
In the Textus Receptus, the Erasmian Koine Greek New Testament from Which the Authorised Version was translated, the Greek phrase employed for “wise masterbuilder” is is … σοφὸς ἀρχιτέκτων … or, when transliterated ‘sophòs architéktōn.’
I will write a bit more concerning Technical drawing, as there is a company in Monaghan called Entekra who 3d prints timberframe houses, and one day I would like to be good enough at technical drawing so as to work for them.
[1] ἡ Ἀκαδημίᾱ Genitive: τῆς Ἀκαδημίᾱς ‘hē akadēmía,’ Genitive: ‘tē̃ s akadēmías;’ 1st-declension feminine noun. ‘the Academy, an Athenian Gymnasium where Plato taught.’ wiktionary
Figure 1: ‘columbus,’ Genitive: ‘columbī,’ is a Latin 2nd-declension masculine noun that means ‘(male) dove’ or ‘cock-pigeon.’ Above is a dove-tail joint that I drew in Inkscape. You can view the vector file of the above image at my codepen account.
Seneca’s prophecy, and its Fulfilment by Christopher Columbus:
Introduction:
“Seneca’s” Prophecy concerns an exerpt from Mēdīa where Seneca seems to foretell the discovery of “the New World.”
Body:
In Mēdīa, Seneca writes:
‘Venient annīs sēcula sērīs
Quibus Ōceanus vincula rērum
Laxet, et ingēns pateat tellūs,
Tēthȳsque novōs dētegat orbēs,
Nec sit terrīs ultimā Thūlē.’
‘There shall come ages, in later times,
in which [times], the Ocean the chains of things
would loosen and the immense planet would be accessible
and, also, fertile waters would reveal new worlds
and neither would [any more] lands be uncharted.’ [1]
Christopher Columbus’ illegitimate son, Ferdinand, owned a copy of Seneca’s Mēdīa and annotated the above verse, thus:
‘haec prophētīa[2] explēta est per patrem meum Christoforum Colōn almīrantem annō 1492’.
‘This prophecy has been fulfilled by my father, Christopher Columbus, in the year 1492’[3].
Conclusion:
One of the reasons why I so earnestly wish to become fluent in Latin, this year, is because it would open up to me about two thousand three hundred years of literature; two thousand three hundred years of primary sources.
[2] From the 1st-declension feminine Ancient-Greek noun, ἡ προφητεία or ‘hē prophēteía,’ which means ‘foretelling.’ From the Ancient-Greek preposition, πρός or ‘prós,’ which, in this instance means ‘fore;’ and the Ancient-Greek verb φημί or ‘phēmí,’ which in this instance means ‘I speak’ or ‘I say.’
Figure 1: I drew this portrait of Reverend Eugene O’ Growney (1863-1899), a Roman Catholic priest who taught Irish Gaelic in Maynooth, and was very influential in the Gaelic League.
I Figure 2: I drew this 1916 Rising flag in Inkscape. The motto, ‘Erin go Bragh,’ means: ‘Ireland till [the Last] Judgement;’ ‘Ireland forever.’
Est quidem lingua Hibernica et ēlēgans cum prīmīs et opulenta.
James Ussher (Usher) 1581 1656
Which means:
The Irish language is indeed both as elegant as the best [of languages] and [also] opulent.
James Usher was an Irish Anglican Bishop.
Latin allows one to read historical documents in their original form.
Figure 1: “Of infinite scope.” I drew this in Inkscape.
Figure 2: ‘ho skopós’ in Ancient Greek is whence we derive the programming term, ‘scope.’
At present, I am writing an article on ‘scope’ as it pertains to programming. I am going to try to explain it with Berkeley’s:
“esse est perspicī;”
which means:
“to be is to be percieved.”
, which some suggest to be a foreshadow of the scientific phenomenon known as:
“quantum observation.”
How far can the quantum observer, as regards the world or universe of the program see, as regards a variable’s declaration and initialisation?
If the quantum observer can see all things; perceive all things; like the omnivident [1] “watcher” portrayed in Figure 1, then the variable is said to be of global scope.
However, as regards the world or universe of the program; should the quantum observer be a little myopic; should his field of perception be limited to a function or an object or some other code block, then the variable in question is said to be of local scope.
[1] I invented this theological term, as it is convenient. It describes the ability of a deity to see all things. From the Latin adjective, ‘omnis,’ which means ‘all;’ and the Latin 2nd-conjugation verb, ‘videō,’ which means ‘I see.’ Incidentally, Goerge Berkely (1685 – 1753) was an Irish Anglican Clergyman.
The better that I know plane and cartesian Geometry, the better that I can both script, and draw (using a free open-source suite like Inkscape) computer Graphics.
In Plane Geometry, a straight edge is used. A straight edge differs from a ruler, in that:
whereas rulers possess gradated markings that indicate standard units of measurement, there are no gradated markings that indicate standard units of measurement – such as millimeters centimeters, etc. – on a straight edge.
the width of the straight edge is deemed infinite, whereas real-life rulers are, it is needless to say, of finite width.
Figure 1: A collapsible compass and straight edge. These two instruments are employed in the construction of figures in Euclidean Geometry. The span of a collapsible compass is deemed to collapse, should both the metallic point, and the graphite point of the compass be removed at the same time from the page.
Figure 2: I drew this 1916 Rising flag in Inkscape. The motto, ‘Erin go Bragh,’ means: ‘Ireland till [the Last] Judgement;’ ‘Ireland forever.’
Maths and Comedy 